Assignments+Mr+P


 * Term 1 [[image:happy world.jpg align="right"]] **
 * Welcome to the JIS Geography team ** ... Please complete our brief questionnaire to help us get to know you better.

=Week 1= Welcome everyone to the wonderful world of A-Level Geography!

PLEASE REMEMBER YOUR HOMEWORK!

Everything that you need is here!!!!




 * Learn Command & Key words - Test on **__Wednesday 4th September__**


 * On an A3/A4 sheet investigate three different coastlines. Using Google Earth locate them and then annotate the features, processes and anything else that you feel would be of interest - Due **__Monday 2nd September__**

Here is an example of a similar.....but slightly different exercise.
 * __ Pl __ **** __ ease make sure that you bring either the hard copy or soft Google Earth copy to Monday's Lesson __ **

Coastal System and Sediment cells


=Week 2=

HOMEWORK
 * Look at the dot map showing World Population Distribution
 * Describe the pattern shown.
 * Suggest reasons for the pattern shown
 * Evaluate this presentation method (Advantages & disadvantages of showing population distribution in this way. Is there a better method?)


 * Have this ready to hand in on Tuesday 10th September **

= Waves - sheets we will be using this week....you don't need to do these yet! =





Exam Practice!


 * Week 3 **

HOMEWORK - Due Monday P5 - 16th September

**Your GSI task is to investigate the condition of Candidasa's beach.**
 * 2. Candidasa Investigation **[[image:geojis-yr12-coasts/GSI detective.jpg align="right" caption="GSI detective.jpg"]] [[image:geojis-yr12-coasts/tropical beach.jpg align="right" caption="tropical beach.jpg"]]

Watch this holiday video made by a visitor to Candidasa a) Use the following resources to help you gather evidence
 * Read the comment below (if you can't see the comment reload the page)
 * Read this [|Jakarta Post]
 * Read the TravelFish article

b) Write a brief report on Candidasa's beach which includes
 * A map showing the location of Candidasa
 * A labelled photo of the town's beach, highlighting the attractiveness (or otherwise) of this beach to tourists
 * An explanation about why the beach is like this
 * A conclusion about the impact human actions have had on the town's potential for making money from tourism

= = =Tides - sheets we will be using this week....you don't need to do these yet! =



=North Sea Storm Surge= media type="custom" key="23780968"media type="custom" key="23780972"media type="custom" key="23780974"media type="custom" key="23780978" width="88" height="88" [|60th Anniversary 1953 Flood] [|Flood site] [|E-surge] =Thames Barrier= media type="custom" key="23780984"media type="custom" key="23780990"media type="custom" key="23780994"

Week 4 - HOMEWORK!
GSI is back people. I would like you to investigate the different landforms that are formed by coastal processes. Please look at the sheet below and investigate how these features are formed. Please feel free to use the sheet provided or devise your own way of presentation.

HAND IN TUESDAY 24TH SEPTEMBER
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Coasts of erosion form as a result of high energy waves, large fetch, high exposure andlimited deposition. They are also associated with drift alligned coasts that are influenced by longshore drift. This transfer of sediment along the coast limits the development of beaches and leads to greater cliff exposure, hence cliff retreat. Coastlines, that are discordant in geology help create typical headland and bay features that also erode over time to form wave-cut platforms and arches and stacks. Wave cut platforms as illustrated in the diagram and shown in the photograph are remnants of the previous cliff line. They form as a ledge of bedrock left behind as the dliff retreats. The platform slopes at at 4-5 degree angle down to the sea. It forms as waves erode the base of the cliff in the inter-tidal zone. Waves scour away at the base through processes of abrasion, hydraulic action and solution, untill over time a wave-cut notch forms. As the notch enlarges, the cliff face becomes undermined until at some point it collapases under its own weight.Attrition and transportation then remove the cliff debris leaving behind a small bedrock ledge, which marks the old cliff line. This process is repeated over time as the cliff retreats forming a larger wave-cut platform. Eventually a beach may develop on the platform which will provide some protection to the cliff and in turn slows down the rate of retreat. Wave-cut platforms are characterised by their gentle sloping angle, hard bedrock and rock pools, which develop unique coastal ecosytems.



__Headlands and bays __ are most commonly found at __discordant coastlines __ where the cliff is subject to __differentiated rates __ of erosion, due to bands of of varying resistant geology. However, they also form at __concordant coasts __ and in sections of cliff that have more distinct lines of weakness. Bays are sheltered, low energy zones that form in bands of weak geology, e.g. clays. Here the cliff erodes at a faster rate. Bays are flanked by headlands which are exposed rocky outcrops positioned at 90 degrees perpendicular to the bay. They consist of more resistant rock, e.g. limestone. Due to the way waves __refract __ around headlands, destructive waves concentrate their energy on their sides and over time develop unique coastal features, such as __caves __, __arches __ and __<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium;">stacks __<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium;">.

<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 1.5;">Wave refraction is the process by which waves become distorted by differentiated rates of friction caused by shallower water ahead of coastal features. In deep water waves are unaffected but in shallow water waves slow down. On approaching the shoreline waves will curve into beaches and reduce the likelihood of drift. Waves approaching headlands slow down and build height creating destructive waves, The waves become refracted around the headland and so wave energy becomes concentrated on the sides of the headland.

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Headlands, once formed, are exposed to the full force of the sea. As a result of wave refraction, destructive waves concentrate their energy on all three sides of the headland and so it slowly erodes overtime. In doing so, quite distinct features develop. There isn't a great deal of complexity in understanding and explaining how the features develop over time but clear exemplification is required as well as a clear sequence. The diagram below left, shows a well annotated headland and it explains how headlands erode over time. It also shows the sequence through numbering.



Coastal Processes

Coastal environments are subject to multiple interaction. This includes, the marine environment, the terrestrial environment, the atmosphere, biospshere, fluvial systems and tectonic processes; not to mention human development and management. This fascinating interaction all takes place within a tiny strip of land/sea interface that we call the coast. Each coast is unique to its own place and each is unique to its own set of interaction. Getting to grips with these different interactions is challenging but with the right framework of geographical thinking it's possible to develop a real understanding for how coasts appear the way they do and for how these multiple processes combine to constantly change them.

The three principle marine processes that influence coasts are erosion, transportation and deposition. Erosion refers to the breaking down of the land by the force of waves. Transportation is the work of waves and tides in transferring this broken material somewhere else and deposition refers to the process by which waves and tides lose energy, cease to transport and release eroded material. Each coastline has its own balance and equilibrium of erosion, transportation and deposition, which is heavily influenced by a vast numbers of interactions referred to in brief above. As reult we can coin the phrase coastline of erosion or coastline of deposition.

A good summary of these processes and interactions is presented in the folowing vido clip from the government's Environmental Agency in the UK

**What is Coastal Erosion?** media type="custom" key="23819174"media type="custom" key="23819202"media type="custom" key="23863518"

The four ways that waves and tides erode the coast are described below: There are four ways that waves and tidal currents transport material:
 * Hydraulic action. Air becomes trapped in joints and cracks in the cliff face. When a wave breaks, the trapped air is compressed which weakens the cliff and causes erosion.
 * Abrasion. Bits of rock and sand in waves are flung against the cliff face. Over time they grind down cliff surfaces like sandpaper.
 * Attrition. Waves smash rocks and pebbles on the shore into each other, and they break and become smaller and smoother.
 * Solution. Weake acids contained in sea water will dissolve some types of rock such as chalk or limestone.
 * Solution. Minerals are dissolved in sea water and carried in solution. The load is not visible. Load can come from cliffs made from chalk or limestone, and calcium carbonate is carried along in solution.
 * Suspension. Small particles are carried in water, eg silts and clays, which can make the water look cloudy. Currents pick up large amounts of sediment in suspension during a storm, when strong winds generate high energy waves.
 * Saltation. Load is bounced along the sea bed, eg small pieces of shingle or large sand grains. Currents cannot keep the larger and heavier sediment afloat for long periods.
 * Traction. Pebbles and larger sediment are rolled along the sea bed.

<span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 24px;">Sub-aerial Processes
<span style="color: #004b8f; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; text-decoration: none;"> The rate of erosion of coasts is also assisted by sub-aerial processes. Sub-aerial processes refer to the processes of weathering and mass movement. Weathering is the breaking down of rock in situ. It can be divided into mechanical and chemical weathering.


 * Mechanical weathering refers to physical processes like freeze-thaw action and biological weathering.Freeze-thaw weathering breaks up rock as water freezes in cracks. The ice applies pressure and breaks the rock.
 * Biological weathering is caused by the roots of vegetation and nesting birds. A more common type of mechanical weathering found at coasts is salt chrystalization. This occurs as waves deposit salt chrystals in cracks and over time the salt like ice applies pressure to the crack.
 * Chemical weathering occurs as a result of a weak chemical reaction between water and rock. eg. with limestone. Carbonic acid, formed from rainwater and carbon dioxide, will react with calcium carbonate in limestone to form calcium bicarbonate. Since calcium bicarbonate is soluble in water, the limestone effectively gets weathered when carbonation occurs. The role of weathering is to weaken cliffs. This weakening speeds up the rates of erosion. Another sub-aerial process is mass movement.
 * [[image:http://thebritishgeographer.weebly.com/uploads/1/1/8/1/11812015/4249806.gif?419 align="right" caption="Rotational Slump"]]A mass movement refers to the movement of material downslope under the influence of gravity. They can be rapid events, such as landsli des and rockfalls or they can be slow processes, such as soil creep. A common type of mass movement at coasts are rotational slumps. Slumps occur due to a combination of factors. Marine processes erode and undermine the base of the cliff. This removes the support of the cliff. In addition rainfall infiltrates into the slope through unconsolidated porous material and then creates a slip plane as it reaches an impermeable material, such as clay. The clay and accumulating water enables the weighted saturated material above to slump.

media type="custom" key="23819200"media type="custom" key="23819210" =HOMEWORK - WEEK 5 - Due Monday 30th September=

1) Revise for test on everything we have done so far (Test on Monday 30th September) 2) Complete the following sheet on Mass Movement

=HOMEWORK - WEEK 6 - Due Wednesday 2nd October= 1) How does Geology alter/change the coast....think about discordant and concordant coastlines



And the sheet!

Check this out too!.... [|Just for fun!]....

Beach Zones and Beach Profiles!


=Week 6 - Thursday 3rd October - Period 1 - R2K - AND half term HOMEWORK - ALL DUE MONDAY 21ST OCTOBER=

1) Complete Coastal Zones Worksheet - on the left hand side of the Tides Worksheet you completed earlier in the term

2) Complete Characteristic Features of a Beach caused by Tides and/or Waves sheet...use the book, WIKI and any other sources to help you. (You will receive this sheet on THURSDAY - ON THE DESK IN R2K - A3)

3) Complete West Bay Case Study (COASTAL EROSION). We will return to West Bay to look at the management of this coast. Sheets are here...



=Week 8 - Monday 21st October - Due Thursday 24th October=

Complete notes on Coastal depositional Landforms. Use the sheet below

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<span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 24px;">Coasts of Deposition
<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium;">Often when you think of __coasts of deposition__ you are immediately drawn to discuss the processes of long-shore drift and the formation of __spits.__ You tend to overlook less obvious, but equally important features, for example, the beach. However, deposition is a lot more complex than this and it is important to develop a structure that puts the emphasis on __place__ and __scale__. The starting point to discussing depositional features is with __swash__ and __drift aligned__ beaches. A swash aligned beach brings in waves parallel to the shore and as result, they build up beaches. Swash aligned beaches are more influenced by constructive wave patterns, which are also important for building up large beaches. In contrast, drift aligned coasts bring in waves at an angle to the shoreline and so therefore, the waves tend to transport sediment down the coast, keeping beaches relatively narrow. It is drift aligned beaches that are mainly associated with __spits__, __bars__ and __tombolos__. Swash beaches are more associated with large beach profiles, with __dunes__, a variety of __berms__ and __beach drainage features__. = = = =

<span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 24px;">The Beach Profile


<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium;">__The beach profile__ extends from the __offshore zone__ to the __backshore zone__. The beach itself forms from the nearshore to the backshore within the tidal range. <span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 1.5;">At coasts dominated by destructive waves the beach profile is narrow and steep. The __<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 1.5;">tidal range __<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 1.5;"> will also be smaller. At coasts dominated by constructives waves, large wide and flat beaches develop and the tidal range is more extensive. It is on these large relatively flat beaches that a greater number of depositional features occur. The smallest in scale, are beach drainage features, such as __<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 1.5;">ridges and runnels __<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 1.5;">. Ridges and runnels form in the __<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 1.5;">foreshore zone __<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 1.5;">. Ridges are areas of the foreshore that are raised above the adjacent shore which dips into a Runnel. The cross-section is similar to that of hills and valleys but at a much smaller scale. Ridge and runnel systems are formed due to the interaction of tides, currents, sediments and the beach topography. They will only form on shallow gradient beaches. They form as a simple drainage routes for incoming and outgoing tides. Water flows in and out via the runnel, creating a hollow channel. The ridges are the raised section next to the runnel. Other depositional features such as __<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 1.5;">berms __<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 1.5;">, which are raised ridges or plateaus that mark the highest tidal point. It's normal for a beach profile to support several berms, that mark different tide levels. The highest berm is called the spring tide berm and is made up of the largest and most course sediment, which merges into the storm beach at the very back of the shore. A smaller feature of the beach profile are __<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 1.5;">beach cusps __<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 1.5;">. Beach cusps are shoreline features made up of various grades of sediment that form an arc pattern. = =

<span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 24px;">Cusps
<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium;">The __horns__ are made up of coarser materials and the __embayment__ contains finer grain sediment. They are most noticeable on shorelines with coarser sediment such as pebble beaches, however, they can occur on beaches with sediment of any size. They nearly always occur in a regular pattern with cusps of equal size and spacing. Cusps are most often a few metres long, however they may reach 60m across. It's unclear how cusps form but once they do they are a self sustaining formation. This is because once an oncoming wave hits the horn of a beach cusp it is split and forced into two directions. The breaking of a wave into the cusps slows its velocity, causing coarser sediment to fall out of suspension and be deposited on the horns. The waves then flow along the embayments (picking up finer sediment) and run into one another in the middle. After this collision these waves attempt to flow back out to sea where they are met by incoming waves. Therefore, once the cusp is established, coarser sediment is constantly being deposited on the horn and finer sediment is being eroded away from the embayments. In this way a positive feedback occurs which should at least maintain the cusp size if not increase it.

<span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 24px;">Drift Aligned Beaches
Drift aligned beaches transfer sediment along the beach due to the angle of wave approaching the shoreline on an angle, under the influence of prevailing winds. As a consequence, large wide beaches struggle to establish. However, these beaches are associated with a range of depositional features that develop along the coast, including spits. The diagram to the left shows the process of longshore drift and longshore currents. Prevailing wind brings waves in on an angle,which is slightly reduced in the nearshore by wave refraction. As waves break, their swash transports sediment up the beach at angle but the backwash under the influence of gravity brings it back perpendicular. As a result sediment is transported down the beach in a zig-zag pattern. Most sediment is suspended in the water but when moved by the breaking wave it is transported through saltation and traction. A strong current is also present in the nearshore, called the longshore current. Sediment is also transported in the longshore current. This can be seen in the diagram below. It is these offshore currents that explain the all-too-common experience, when bathing at the seaside, you enter the sea at one point but when you come out you realise that you have drifted some distance down the beach. At breaks within the offshore bar, surfers will be all-too-familiar with the powerful rip-currents that develop.





<span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 24px;">Depositional Features Associated with Drift Aligned Beaches
<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif;">__Spits__ are long narrow ridges of sand and shingle which project from the coastline into the sea. The formation of a spit begins due to a __change in the direction__ of the coastline, where a __low energy zone__ is found. This can also be at the mouth of the estuary. The main source of material building up a spit is from long shore drift and current, which brings material from further down the coast. <span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif;">Where there is a break in the coastline and a slight drop in energy, long shore drift will deposit material at a faster rate than it can be removed and gradually a ridge is built up, projecting outwards into the sea - this continues to grow by the process of long shore drift and the deposition of material. A change in __prevailing wind__ direction often causes the end of spits to become __hooked__. On the spit itself, sand dunes often form and __salt-loving vegetation__ colonises. Water becomes trapped behind the spit, creating a low energy zone, as the water begins to stagnate, mud and marshland often begins to colonise behind the spit; spits may continue to grow until deposition can no longer occur, for example due to increased depth, or the spit begins to cross the mouth of a river and the water removes the material faster than it can be deposited - preventing further build up. These marshland are called __salt marshes__. __Bars__ form in a similar way to spits, as longshore drift transports sediment and shingle down the beach it deposits it at low energy zones, such as bays. At a bay the bar, if continiued to be fed by sediment will extend across the bay cutting off a lagoon behind. In some area, bars extend to join the mainland to an island. This forms a sediment ridge called a __tombolo__; a good example is Llandudno in North Wales. Tombolos. __Cuspate forelands__ can be described as triangular beaches. They form due to longshore drift removing sediment in opposing directions. The two sets of storm waves build up a series of ridges, each protecting the material behind it, creating the triangular feature. Cuspate forelands form due to the positioning of the coast and their orientation to incoming tides and prevailing winds.



**Sand Dune Formation**

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=Week 9 - Please make sure that you are ready to hand in everything on Tuesday P5 - 29th October=

=Wednesday 30th October - TRIP!=

We leave at 7.45am...PLEASE MAKE SURE YOU REMEMBER THE INSTRUCTIONS!

The students should come to school wearing __school PE kit__ as well as bringing their school uniform for when you return. You will also require the following:
 * __You will be departing school at 7.45am__** and will travel by coach to Berakas beach where they will complete their fieldwork activities. They will return by coach to school by 12.00pm. At all times they will be under the supervision of staff and appropriate staff/student ratios will be observed.
 * Adequate supplies of cold drink
 * Hat
 * Sunscreen/insect repellent
 * Shoes that may get wet with straps
 * Pencil and something to lean on
 * Camera
 * Towel

Salt Marsh Formation
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=Coastal Protection Objectives & Management strategies=



=Hard Engineering Case Study=

=Soft Engineering Case Study=

=Sea Level Change and Coastal flooding= <span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif;">Sea level rise has dominated the last 20 000 as can be seen in the graph to the left. Large storages of water in ice sheets during glacial periods reduces sea level to a minimum. Our glacial maximum follow a fairly regular 100 000 year cycle. Since the last glacial maximum levels have risen close to 140 meters, averaging a 10mm rise every year, peaking at 40mm per year 6000 years ago. Estimates for the 20th century show that global average sea level rose at a rate of about 1.7mm per year. Satellite altimetry observations, available since the early 1990s, provide more accurate sea level data with nearly global coverage and indicate that since 1993 sea level has been rising at a rate of about 3mm per year. Climate models based on the current rate of increase in greenhouse gases, however, indicate that sea level may rise at about 4mm per year reaching 0.22 to 0.44 meters above 1990 levels by the period 2090-2099.

<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif;">(IPCC) Predictions vary based on the base year predictions relate to. Another estimate from IPCC is <span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium; line-height: 1.5;">0.18 -0.59 meters or 2100 relative to 1980-1999 under a range of scenarios.The uncertainty of the projections can be seen in the graph below:

<span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 24px;">Causes of Sea Level Change
<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: medium;">he current period of sea level rise is caused in part by the natural temperature cycle and shift from the last glacial maximum. Due to natural climate change, temperatures have risen and the great ice sheets of North America, Greenland and Eurasia have shrunk in size. This water storage is now found in oceans and has lead to a rise in sea level of more than 120 meters. However, the rate of increase has fallen dramatically over the past 6000 years. The rate sea level increase of today is associated with the __accelerated greenhouse effect__ caused by human activity. __Anthropogenic__ causes, such as industry, aviation and domestic reliance on fossil fuel based electricity, seems to be the most likely cause of recent global warming. This in turn has caused increases in ocean temperature, estimated to be an average of 0.33 degrees cellcius in the upper portions of the ocean to 700 meters compared to 1870 ocean temperatures. Sea level rise is largely caused by melting ice sheets but a significant factor to consider is also the __thermal expansion__ of ocean. This change is sea level due to a change in storage in ice or ocean is called __eustatic change__. A rise in sea level because of a fall in ice storage is called __eustatic rise__ and a fall in sea level because of rise in ice storage is called __eustatic fall__. A second process of sea level change relates to a process called __isostatic adjustment__. Isostatic adjustment refers to a change in the equilibrium of the mantle in relation to the weighting above it, caused by changes in ice sheet cover. __Isostatic recovery__ refers to a relative fall in sea level, due to the rise of the land mass as result of ice sheet melting. __Isostatic fall__ relates to a relative rise in sea level due to a fall in the land caused by ice sheet growth.



=Emergent and Submergent Features=

<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif;">__Emergent coastlines__ form as a result of a (relative) fall in sea level. This may be as a result of greater ice storage, but in today's context they form as a result of __isostatic recovery__. Isotatic recovery creates a range of __abandoned or relic__ coastal landforms that formed at the point in time and space that they were at the coastal margin. They now stand some distance away from the marine zone. These landforms include, __raised beaches__ and __wave-cut platforms__, __relict cliffs__ with typical cliff features and __coastal plains__. A good place location to observe these coastal features is is in Western Scotland. Current rates of recovery in the Forth, Clyde and Tay valleys are thought to be between 1.8 and 2mm per year. This fall in relative sea level has helped form the sort of coastal features that can be seen in the photos below. There is also a very detailed presentation on sea level change in the slideshare presentation, including a video explaining the coastal plain of Belgium.

<span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 24px;">Submergent Coastlines
<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif;">Submergent coastlines form as a result of sea level rise. The current period of sea level rise, caused by melting ice sheets and thermal expansion of the ocean is called __eustatic change__. As a result of eustatic change, a number of coastal features develop, including the formation of __fjords__, __rias__ and __fjards__.

<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif;">Fjords are narrow, lengthened and steep marine gulfs that result from the inward movement of the sea into __U-shaped valleys__ deepened by a glacier, during the last glacial period. They have a symetricall valley shape and vast channel depth that enables inland navigation. They are a renowned physical feature of the Norwegian coastline. A rias is a deep, sunken river valley drowned by the sea. They form funnel-shaped branching inlets, decreasing in depth and width inland. A good example can be found in the Solva in Pembrokeshire. Rias are different to Fjords in that the valley was previously shaped by river processes rather than glacial processes. Rias may show a meandering form as they navigate around spurs. Fjards are drowned glacial lowlands like those found in western Scotland. They are typically punctuated by small islands, called skerries that result from isostatic recovery.

<span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 24px;">Future Sea Level Rise
<span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif;">Predicting sea level rise over the next 100 years is a difficult process. The main problem is our lack of understanding of how ocean temperature reacts to atmospheric temperature change. In addition, there is great uncertainty over what carbon emission track we will take in the future. The graph to the left shows projected sea level rise for three different emission scenarios. The semi-empirical method predicts sea level rise roughly 3 times greater than the IPCC predictions. Note the IPCC predictions are shown as vertical bars in the bottom right. For the lowest emission rate, sea levels are expected to rise around 1 metre by 2100. For the higher emission scenario, which is where we're currently tracking, sea level rise by 2100 is around 1.4 metres. It is generally thought that the IPCC has made very conservative predictions for future sea level change. The maps below show a realistic outcome of a 1 metre rise in sea level, should global efforts to curb carbon emission continue to delay. North Europe, especially the Netherlands and South Asia, in particular the Sunderbans region of West Bengal and Bangladesh will lose large quantities of land.



<span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 24px;">The Impacts of Sea Level Rise
<span style="color: #666666; display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif;">Firstly, it is important to recognise that the impacts of sea level rise are already being felt in many places of the world. Millions has already been invested in the [|Deltaworks in the Netherlands] and vast public funds are earmarked for continued maintenance and improvements to safeguard this densely populated region of North Europe. Elswehere, the Sunderbans region of West Bengal and the low lying delta of Bangladesh is amongst the fastest eroding coastlines in the world, with some places experiencing more than 20 meters of erosion each year. There appears to be an __increasing frequency of cyclones__ with their associated tidal surges. In the Pacific Ocean, low lying island states are already suffering the worst affect of sea level rise, with increased rates of __salinisation__,__coastal erosio__n and __storm surges__ forcing many to consider __migration__. The following videos show the problems for Pacific islanders and people living in the Sunderbans. <span style="color: #666666; display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif;"> <span style="color: #666666; display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif;">media type="custom" key="24641624"media type="custom" key="24641626" <span style="color: #666666; display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif;"> <span style="color: #666666; display: block; font-family: arial,sans-serif;"> <span style="color: #666666; font-family: arial,sans-serif;">The following PowerPoint on the potential impacts of sea level rise on East Anglia provides a useful regional case study for the UK. In addition to impacts of flooding, governments and regional authorities need to make concrete and lasting decisions on how to manage the increasing rates of __coastal erosion__. Coastal erosion will have major impacts on local, regional and national economies. With the consequence of land loss and inundation a real possibility, very big decisions will have to be made on how to safeguard populations. This may involve embracing hard engineered sea defenses but it's difficult to see how that would be financed. Alternatively, decision makers may opt for softer approaches such as __coastal realignment__, like that seen at Wallasea, (described on the next page for case studies) or even the abandoning of some coastal regions. However this decision to allow vast areas of fertile farmland won't be taken lightly as such as decision would come with enormous social and cultural losses to the regions affected.

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